Ancient Egyptian burial customs

The ancient Egyptians had an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure their immortality after death. These rituals and protocols included mummification, casting of magic spells, and burial with specific grave goods thought to be needed in the afterlife.[1][2]. The burial customs used by the ancient Egyptians evolved throughout time as old customs were discarded and new ones adopted, but several important elements of the process persisted. Although specific details changed over time, the preparation of the body, the magic rituals involved, and the grave goods provided were all essential parts of a proper Egyptian funeral.

Contents
1 Mummification
1.1 Reason
1.2 Practice
2 Burial rituals and funerary literature
3 Burial goods
4 References



Mummification

Reason
Keeping the body of an individual intact after death was necessary so that the soul would have a place to live after death. Shallow burials in hot sand often brought about mummification. But once bodies were buried in tombs they decayed quickly. The ancient Egyptians used mummification to prevent the person's remains from decaying.

Mummification was first used in the Old Kingdom, but not fully developed until the New Kingdom. It continued to be practiced until the demise of the ancient Egyptian religion. Mortuary services were available to anyone who could pay for them, although wealthy members of society could afford more elaborate services.


PracticeAlthough no records exist that document the exact process ancient Egyptians used to mummify humans, documents describing the mummification of the sacred Apis bull, the descriptions of Herodotus combined with thorough examination of existing mummies allow scholars to deduce the most likely course of the mummification process.

The basic process involved laying the body on a flat board, and cutting a slit in the abdomen. In an elaborate mummification, this might be performed by a priest wearing a jackal mask to represent Anubis, the deity associated with mummification and the guardian of the Necropolis. Then the body would be washed inside and out with palm wine. The lungs, liver, intestines, and the stomach were removed, mummified separately, and put into canopic jars. The heart was left intact because Egyptians believed this is where the essence of a person resided. Because the ancient Egyptians did not recognize the cognitive function of the brain, the brain would be removed by breaking the thin bone separating the nasal and cranial cavities. This was accomplished by inserting a hooked rod through the nose, stirring the brain until it turned into a liquid, and pouring it out through the nose. The cranial cavity would then be swabbed with linen and hot resin poured into the cavity to seal it.

The body cavity and the separate parts might then be washed with palm wine again. The body was then placed in natron for about forty days, with packets of natron placed inside the chest cavity. Natron dehydrated the body, which, combined with the high salt concentration, prevented bacterial growth and the decay of the body.

The mummy was then wrapped in many layers of linen strips, sealed to the body by tar or resin. Magic amulets were put in the folds and were believed to protect the body from evil spirits and help the soul on its journey through the afterlife. The entire process was completed in seventy days, after which the mummy was delivered to the deceased person's family for burial.


Burial rituals and funerary literature

The book of the dead was a collection of spells designed to guide the deceased in the afterlife.After the mummy was prepared, it would need to be re-animated, symbolically, by a priest. The Opening of the Mouth Ceremony was conducted by a priest who would utter a spell and touch the mummy or sarcophagus with a ceremonial adze - a copper or stone blade. This ceremony ensured that the mummy could breathe and speak in the afterlife. In a similar fashion, the priest could utter spells to reanimate the mummy's arms, legs, and other body parts.

In addition to the Opening of the Mouth ceremony, many mummies were provided with some form of funerary literature to take with them to the afterlife. Most funerary literature consists of lists of spells and instructions for navigating the afterlife. During the Old Kingdom, only the pharaoh had access to this material, which scholars refer to as the Pyramid Texts. The Pyramid Texts are a collection of spells to help the pharaoh in the afterlife. The Pharaoh Unas was the first to use this collection of spells, as he and a few subsequent pharaohs had them carved on the walls of their pyramids.[3]

In the First Intermediate Period and in the Middle Kingdom, some of the Pyramid Text spells also are found in burial chambers of high officials and on many coffins, where they begin to evolve into what scholars call the Coffin Texts. In this period, the nobles and many non-royal Egyptians began to have access to funerary literature, which later evolved into the well-known Book of the dead. By the time of the New Kingdom, any Egyptian who could afford a Book of the dead was able to take along to the afterlife a list of spells and instructions that would ensure safe passage.[4]


Burial goods
From the earliest periods of Egyptian history, all Egyptians were buried with at least some burial goods which they thought necessary after death. At a minimum, these usually consisted of everyday objects such as bowls, combs, and other trinkets, along with food. Wealthier Egyptians could afford to be buried with jewelry, furniture, and other valuables, which made them targets of tomb robbers.

As burial customs developed in the Old Kingdom, wealthy citizens were buried in wooden coffins and were accompanied by more varied kinds of valuables. Starting in the First Intermediate period, wooden models became very popular burial goods. These wooden models often depict everyday activities that the deceased expected to continue doing in the afterlife. Also, a type of rectangular coffin became the standard, being brightly painted and often including an offering formula.


A selection of shabti statuesIn the New Kingdom, some of the old burial customs changed. For example, an anthropoid coffin shape became standardized, and the deceased were provided with a small shabti statue, which the Egyptians believed would perform work for them in the afterlife. In later burials, the numbers of shabti statues increased; in some burials, numbering more than four hundred statues. In addition to these shabti statues, the deceased could be buried with many different types of magical figurines to protect them from harm. Although the types of burial goods changed throughout ancient Egyptian history, their functions to protect the deceased and provide sustenance in the afterlife remained a common purpose.